Abuz Zubair
8th December 2006, 10:53 AM
All praise be to Allah, the Lord of the Worlds, the First and the Last, who does what He wills, as He wills and when He wills. Praise be to Him as He is ought to be praised. May His salutations be upon the most noble of mankind, Muhammad b. ‘Abdullah, who was sent to the world as mercy, to rescue the nations from the fire of hell and show them the way to Allah’s paradise.
Welcome to our lessons on Sharh al-‘Aqida al-Tahawiyya by the great Hanafi scholar, Ibn Abil-‘Izz al-Hanafi, which comes as a Sunni commentary to the creed written by one of the Sunni scholars of Islam, al-Imam al-Tahawi – may Allah be merciful with him.
Since the commentary by Ibn Abil-‘Izz is sufficient to explain the Sunni creed, there is no need for anyone to further comment on the commentary itself. However, since many parts of the commentary may require further elaboration, I would try my best to comment on the commentary wherever appropriate.
COMMENTATOR’S PREFACE
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In the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful.
1. Praise is for Allah. We praise Him, seek His help, ask for His forgiveness; and we seek refuge in Allah from the evil in our souls from the wrong of our deeds. Whomever Allah guides, there is no one to misguide him; and whomever He leaves astray, there is none to guide him. I bear witness that there is no god except Allah, One, with no partner. I also bear witness that our revered Muhammad is His servant and messenger. May Allah bless him and his family, his companions and his followers, and shower on them favors.
2. The science of the principles of faith [I](usul ad-din) is the noblest of all the sciences, for the dignity of a science depends upon the dignity of the subject it studies. It is the fiqh al-akbar (higher knowledge) in contrast to fiqh al-furu, (knowledge of practical rules). For this reason, lmam Abu Hanifah named what he stated and gathered together in writing concerning the foundations of the religion fiqh al-akbar. A person’s need for this understanding is greater than any other need. It is a greater necessity than any other necessity, for there is no life, pleasure or tranquility for hearts except by knowing their Lord, object of adoration and Creator, by names, attributes and acts. In knowing that, he will love Him above everything and he will seek all that brings him close to Him and he will not pursue anything else of His creation.
The Commentator explains why the study of Islamic theology is the most noble of all sciences. He argues that the nobility of any knowledge is determined by its subject. For instance, Medicine is a noble science since it deals with human health and improvement thereof; hence, the nobility of medicine depends on the nobility of human health. Similarly, the science that deals with knowing Allah is the most noble of all sciences because there is nothing nobler than Allah.
In this regard, the commentator suggests that al-Imam Abu Hanfia wrote his work on creed and called it: al-Fiqh al-Akbar – meaning, the greater fiqh, as opposed to the lesser fiqh of salah, zakah, sawm and Hajj, etc. This is because al-fiqh al-akbar, that is our knowledge of Allah, is the foundation of the rest of the fiqh.
With respect to attribution of the work al-fiqh al-akbar to Imam Abu Hanifa, then that is incorrect. This is because it is a reflection of Kullabite ideology which was not formulated by the time of Imam Abu Hanifa. Nevertheless, many of the scholars still refer to this book, because even if the book does not wholly represented Imam Abu Hanifa’s beliefs, it does so partially.
3. It is impossible for unaided human reason to know all of the above and to realize it in detail. Therefore, the mercy of the Merciful led Him to send messengers to teach about Him and to call people to belief in Him. Whoever responded (positively) to them received good tidings from the prophets, and whoever opposed them received warnings from them. The key and essence of their missions to impart knowledge of the Adored, may He be glorified, through His names, attributes and actions. From beginning to end, the goal of their prophecies was built upon this knowledge.
4. This is thus followed by two important principles. First is the knowledge of the way to Allah and that way is His Shariah, which consists of His commands and prohibitions. Second is the knowledge of the happiness and bounties which are reserved for those who come to Allah by following the proper way.
5. Those who know Allah best are the best followers of the path to and the most knowledgeable of the life that awaits them when they come to Him. For this reason, Allah called what He revealed to His messengers ruh, or ‘spirit’, because the real life is dependent on it. He also called it light (nur) because guidance is dependent upon it. Allah, the Most High, says, “By His command He sends the spirit to any of His servants He pleases” [40: 15], and “Thus We have sent, by Our command, the spirit to you. You knew not before what was Revelation and what was Faith. But We have made it (the Qur’an) a light, wherewith We guide such of Our servants as We will. And you guide (men) to the Straight Path, the Way of Allah to Whom belongs whatever is in the heavens and whatever is on earth. Behold all affairs tend towards Allah” [42:52-53]. There is no life except through what the Messenger brought and there is no light except what is lit by it. It is the cure and healing, as Allah says, “Say: it is a guide and healing for the Believers” [41:44]. Although it is a cure and healing for anyone, since only the Believers benefit from it, they are specifically mentioned.
6. Allah sent His messengers with guidance and the true religion. Aside from what they brought, there is no true guidance. There is no doubt that it is obligatory upon every individual to believe in what the Messenger brought in general. There is also no doubt that to know the detailed matters of what the Messenger brought is an obligation upon the community as a whole (Fard kifayah). This detailed knowledge make up part of the knowledge which is required for preaching the revelation, for elaborating on the Qur’an, for teaching the Book and the Sunnah, for guarding the message against corruption, for disseminating its ideas, for enjoining good and forbidding evil, for calling men to the Way of the Lord with wisdom, effective persuasion and cogent argument, and for many other things which Allah has made incumbent upon the Believers. Therefore, it is their collective responsibility (to know and understand what the Prophet brought in detail).
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The detailed knowledge referred to by the commentator is all that which the layman is not obliged to learn. But such knowledge must be preserved by a few, such that as and when a layman is in need of that knowledge, the scholars can readily make that knowledge available to him. Therefore, it is a communal obligation – or fard kifaya – to preserve such knowledge. Meaning, in every community there must be a qualified Islamic scholar to whom the people can refer to with their religious queries.
7. As for individuals themselves, the obligation upon them varies according to their talents, abilities, knowledge and what they have been specifically commanded to do. The responsibility of one who is incapable of understanding a particular idea or enters into its depths is not the same as the responsibility of one who has such a capability. The responsibility of one who hears a particular text or who can explain a text and work out its implications is not the same as the responsibility of one who has not heard such a text or who does not understand it. Obviously, the responsibilities of a jurist, scholar of [I]hadith, or ruler differ from the responsibilities of those who do not hold such positions.
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This is a very important statement, similar (if not exact) to what Ibn Taymiyya says in dar’ al-ta’arudh. This statement highlights certain things to us all:
a) We have different abilities and skills, and we cannot expect all of us to master a particular science.
b) Our individual and social responsibilities must be in accordance with the skills we posses.
For instance, if a person is gifted by Allah in terms of religious knowledge and understanding, it would be a waste of his skills to direct him to study another science. Similarly, if one was gifted in computer science, it wouldn’t be wise for him to study Islamic sciences in depth, if he lacks the skills.
Therefore, the one who is gifted, his responsibilities are not the same at all as the one not that gifted.
Therefore, as a side-point, it is of utmost importance for any leadership to be aware of the potential and skills of the followers, and to only task them with work they enjoy and are good at!
8. One must realize that the majority of those who strayed concerning this topic or those who failed to recognize the truth have done so because they have not paid due attention to following what the Messenger brought, or they did not ponder it or appreciate its arguments that lead to this knowledge. Once they turned away from the Book of Allah, they went astray. As Allah states, “But whenever My guidance comes to you, whoever follows My guidance will not go astray or be distressed. As for him who turns his face away from My message, his living will become straitened, and on the Day of Resurrection, We will raise him sightless. He will say, ‘My Lord! Why have You raised me blind when I had been able to see?’ He will reply, So will it be. My signs and messages came to you, but you forgot them all. So will you be forgotten this day.” [20:123- 126]
9. Ibn ‘Abbas said, “Allah has guaranteed that whoever reads the Qur’an and acts upon it will never go astray in this life, nor will he suffer misery in the next,” and then he recited the above verses. At-Tirmidhi and other compilers of [I]hadith reported on the authority of ‘Ali that the Prophet (peace be on him) said, “There will be trials and tribulations.” The people asked, “How will we save ourselves?” He replied, “Adhere to the Book of Allah, which speaks of those who have gone before, as well as of those who will come later, and tells the truth in clear and definite terms in matters concerning which you disagree. Whoever neglects it out of conceit will be humiliated by Allah. Whoever looks for guidance elsewhere will be misled by Allah. It is the cord of Allah, which will never break, the Wise Message and the Right Path, which will never be distorted by evil minds or corrupted by wicked tongues. Its mysteries will never end, nor will scholars ever be satisfied by what they know of it. Whoever speaks according to it has spoken the truth; whoever acts upon it will be rewarded; whoever rules according to it does justice; and whoever calls to it invites to the Straight Path.” There are many more verses and ahadith of similar meaning.
10. Allah does not accept any way of life from the first or last of mankind unless it is in accordance with the way of life prescribed through the tongues of His messengers. He has declared that He rejects all that people ascribe to Him except what the prophets stated about Him. He states, “Glory be to your Lord, the Lord of Honor and Power. He is free from what they ascribe to Him. And peace be on the messengers. And praise be to Allah, the Lord and Cherisher of the Worlds” [37:180-182]. He has thus exalted Himself above the unbecoming attributes the unbelievers ascribed to Him. Then He blessed the prophets because they did not ascribe any shortcoming or defect to Him. Then He praised Himself because of His unique attributes that entitle Him to complete praise.
11. The best people of all generations, the Companions of the Prophet (peace be on him) and their righteous Successors, followed the way which the Prophet (peace be on him) had shown. The Companions taught it to the Successors and the Successors followed the Companions. They thus walked on the path the Prophet (peace be on him) blazed. As Allah says in His Noble Book, “Say: This is my way; I do call to God with full knowledge, I and those who follow me” [12:108]. (By the Arabic structure of the verse.) “those who follow me” could relate back to “I do call to God,” [meaning, I call to God as do those who follow me,’) which is evidence that those who follow him are the real callers to the way of Allah. Or, it could be referring to “with full knowledge,” thus stating clearly that those who follow him are those with full knowledge of what he brought as opposed to others (who do not have such knowledge). Both meanings are sound.
12. The Prophet (peace be on him) delivered the message clearly and explained it for those who seek the truth. The best generations followed his path and way. Then came generations afterwards who followed their lusts and divided into sects. But then Allah raised for this nation people who protected and restated the foundations and principles of its religion, as the Prophet (peace be on him) stated, “There will always be a group of my nation that will defend the truth. Those who forsake them will not harm them.”
13. One of the Muslim scholars who fulfilled that obligation was Imam Abu Ja’far Ahmad lbn Muhammad lbn Salamah Al-Azdi At-Tahawi, may Allah immerse him in His mercy. He lived during the third century after the Hijrah; he was born in 239 A.H. and died in 321 A.H. He reported what the Salaf followed. He quoted from lmam Abu Hanifah An-Nu’man Ibn Thabit Al-Kufi and his two colleagues, Abu Yusuf Ya’qub lbn Ibrahim Al-Himyari Al-Ansari and Muhammad Ibn Hassan Ash-Shaybani, the principles of faith they believed in to please their Lord. May Allah bless them.
Al-Imam al-Tahawi was a Shafi’i scholar to converted to Hanafism. His work on creed, known as al-‘aqida al-tahawiyya, thereafter, become one of the few works recognized and acknowledged by the four Sunni schools. Al-Tahawi, amongst the Hanafis, represents the traditional theological school, that adheres to the legal texts without delving into ‘ilm al-kalam. The Hanafi school also had two other prominent strands; the rationalist strand represented by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi, and the ultra-rationalist strand represented by Bishr al-Marrisi, one of the leading figures of the Mu’tazili movement. Both of the latter strands were advocates of ‘ilm al-kalam, or speculative theology, which was condemned by the consensus of the Salaf.
14. As time passed on, heresies and deviations - what their proponents (deceivingly) called Ta’wil (“correct interpretation”) in order for it to be accepted - began to appear. Very few could distinguish between correct interpretation and wrong, deviant interpretations. Ta’wil as they understood it, was to discard the plain meaning of the text and understand it in a sense different from what its words implied, even though there was nothing in the words to suggest that meaning. This was a source of evil. Since they called it Ta’wil, and as people began using the term in that sense, it became difficult to distinguish correct interpretation from misinterpretation.
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The crime of Ta’wil has been one of the greatest crimes against the Sharia throughout Islamic history. Basically, it has been a very convenient tool in the hands of anyone who finds contradiction between Islam and his ideals, and therefore, tries to ‘shape up’ Islamic to suit his needs.
The Mu’tazilas found many of the legal texts rationally absurd, such as the sirat, and the mizan, etc, so they distorted the meanings of the texts under the guise of ta’wil.
The Ash’aris did the same with those of the attributes that contradicted their kalami principles.
The Batini esoterics had their own version of Islam, which had no hell, nor heaven, nor prohibitions, nor sharia, and ta’wil was applied, virtually, in every aspect of Sharia.
The ‘Muslim’ secularists today have a similar agenda, where they would like to shred Islam of many of its laws. Hence, the call for reinterpretation of legal texts within the 21<sup>st</sup> century context, thereby seeking new revolutionary interpretation of the Quran under the guise of ta’wil. Those of the so-called ‘fundamentalists’ disagree are conveniently labeled as backward literalists, who believe in, and implement the literal implementation of the ‘Koran’.
15. After that began, the Believers came to be in need of clear expositions and refutations of the misconceptions presented. This led to a lot of discussion and discord. The cause for that was the people’s inclining to the misconceptions and doubts the heretics had raised and their entering into blameworthy philosophical discussions that the Elders had discouraged. The Elders prohibited studying, preoccupation with, or leaning towards such philosophy or scholasticism. This was in compliance with their Lord’s command, Who said, “When you see men engaged in vain discourse about Our words, turn away from them unless they turn to a different topic.” [6:68] The meaning of this verse clearly applies to them.
16. Misinterpretation of the text and deviation from the truth are of varying degrees: some are infidelity [I](kufr), some are intransigence (fisq), some are sin (ma’siyyah) and some are simply mistakes (khata’).
So not all types of ta’wil are of the same degree. The ta’wil of the batiniyya is kufr, whereas the ta’wil of the Ash’aris, mostly is misguidance not reaching the level of kufr. Yet, there are others who may be guilty of ta’wil and fall only into an error, not necessitating misguidance or kufr.
17. It is necessary to follow the messengers strictly and adhere to what Allah revealed to them. Prophecy ended with Muhammad (peace be on him). He was made the final prophet; his Book was made the judge over all the books revealed before; he was given the Book and the Sunnah; and his message was for all responsible creatures — both men and jinns — for all times, until the Day of Resurrection. Through him, Allah has established the truth, explained everything people need, and completed his religion for him and his nation. He has declared that obedience to the Prophet is obedience to Allah and disobedience to the Prophet is disobedience to Allah. Furthermore, He swore by Himself that people will not be true Believers unless they submit to the Prophet’s verdict on differences that may arise between them. He also stated that only hypocrites would ignore the Prophet and take their disputes to others for judgment. When they are called to Allah and the Messenger (to judge between them) - that is, to the Book of Allah and the Sunnah of His Messenger — they oppose it completely and claim that they simply want what is best and blessed.
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18. And many of the dialecticians, philosophers and others say the same, “We want to know things as they really are. And we want to reconcile the rational evidence — what they call rational evidence which is actually ignorant evidence — and the reported statements from the Messenger.” Or, “We want to bring the Shari’ah and philosophy into agreement.”
19. Or as many of the heretics among the ascetics and Sufis say, “We want the best life by bringing together the Shariah and the falseness that they call reality.” This is ignorance and misguidance. Similarly, many who have by any means grabbed power claim, “We want to improve the conditions of the people and reconcile their principles of government and the Shari’ah,” and so on.
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This is another important point to take note of. Many of those who attribute themselves to Islam, while their hearts and minds are captivated by another ideology, find themselves at pains to reconcile between their faith and reason. The so-called Muslim philosophers who were mesmerized by Greek philosophy, and often found the fundamental Islamic concept of God and the creation at odds with Aristotle’s philosophy and logic. And hence, they remained faithful to philosophy, but distorted Islam, while claiming that they only seek to reconcile between the two ideas and demonstrate that there is no conflict between the two.
The Sufis, who were mesmerized by their idea of spiritual practices, when they found it contradicting with the Sharia, they began to look for Shara’i justification for their non-Shara’i practices, all the while claiming that there is no contradiction between the Islamic Sharia and the Sufi Haqiqa.
Similarly, whenever you have a new ideology which some so-called Muslims have wholeheartedly embraced, and which happens to be at odds with Islam, we would find those Muslims at pains with reconciling between the two, and justifying that there is no contradiction between the two blatantly contradictory ideas.
For instance, in Egypt there was an attempt to demonstrate how French laws were not contradictory to Islamic laws, and that is by searching through all the odd opinions found in the four, or more schools of fiqh, looking for those opinions that would, in one way or another, agree with French Law.
Similar is the case with the Muslims living in some Western countries where they are told to choose between their national identity and Islam. And unfortunately, the Muslim response usually happens to be exactly the same; that they try their best to reconcile between their national and global religious identity.
The proper Muslim response should be: Islam is above all ideologies and schisms, such that it does not need to be reconciled with anything else. If anything, it is Islam whose role is to bring everything else in line with it.
20. Whoever intends to establish anything in religion besides what the Prophet (peace be upon him) taught, and believes that it is good and that combines what the Prophet had with what contradicts it will only get the latter, for what the Prophet brought is sufficient and perfect. Every truth is part of it. Shortcomings and errors only come from the many Muslims themselves who actually do not know what the Prophet stated in matters related to theology, in matters related to different aspects of worship or in matters related to governmental affairs. Or they ascribe to the Shariah of the Messenger, because of their suppositions and customs, things that are not part of it and they discard many things which are part of that Shari’ah. As a result of the ignorance and error of some, and the intransigence and hypocrisy of others, the knowledge of the Prophet’s teachings is on the decline and hypocrisy is on the rise.
21. It is necessary that we acquaint ourselves completely with what the Messenger (peace be on him) taught, reflect deeply on it and apply it to all that we know and believe. We must apply it both exoterically and esoterically. In that way, we will do justice to the Book and will not discard anything of it.
22. If someone is not able to know or act upon all of that knowledge, he should not oppose what he cannot comprehend of what the Prophet (peace be upon him) brought. It is sufficient for him that he is not to be blamed for his inability. But he should be happy that someone else is able to do what he cannot. It should please him. He should wish that he could do the same. He should not believe in some parts of the revelation and not in others, but he must believe in all of the Book. He must also refrain from putting into it what does not belong to it, even if it be something passed on from earlier people or opinion, and refrain from following anything, in belief or actions, that is not from Allah. As Allah, the Most High, has said, “Do not confuse the truth with falsehood, nor hide the truth knowingly.” [2:42]
23. This was the way of the earliest generation of Salaf, those who followed them in good, the leaders of the religion [I](a’immat ad-din) whom the entire Muslim nation accepts, and those who follow them until the Day of Resurrection. Abu Yusuf, may Allah have mercy on him, said to Bishr Al-Marrisi, “Knowledge of kalam is ignorance, and ignorance of kalam is knowledge. Whoever masters kalam should be called or accused of being a heretic-hypocrite (zindiq).” By “ignorance of kalam” he meant the belief that it is not true, that it by itself is beneficial knowledge, or he meant by that refraining from kalam and avoiding studying it. That it will protect a person’s knowledge and intellect and is part of knowledge itself. Allah knows best. He also said, “Whoever seeks knowledge through kalam becomes a heretic-hypocrite. Whoever seeks wealth by alchemy will become penniless. Whoever runs after lone (gharib) hadith falls into falsehood.”
Here the commentator is hinting that those he would endeavor to refute in this commentary are the partisans of speculative theology – or ‘ilm al-kalam, be they the Mu’tazila, the Ash’aris or the Maturidis.
24. Imam Ash-Shafi’i (may Allah have mercy on him) said. “My judgment concerning the people engaged in kalam is that they should be flogged with palm branches and shoes and taken round and displayed before the tribes and clans.” And it should be said, “This is the punishment for those who ignore the Qur’an and Sunnah and instead engage in kalam.” He also stated, in lines of poetry,
“Every knowledge except the Qur’an is diversion
except (also) hadith and Fiqh in religion.
Knowledge is where one says: Haddathana
beyond that is only what has been whispered by Satan.”
Our colleagues [from the Hanafi school] mentioned in their legal rulings: ‘If one were to bequeath his wealth to the ‘ulama of his township,’ the speculative theologians (mutakallimun) are not to be included in the ranks of the ‘ulama. If a man were to bequeath some of his books concerning knowledge as an endowment (waqf), the Salaf declared that the books on speculative theology be sold (instead of treating them as waqf). That has been stated in Al-Fatawa adh-Dhahiriyyah.
25. How can one wish to attain the knowledge of the foundations or principle aspects without following what the Messenger brought? What an excellent statement was made by the one who said in poetry,
“You who go out in search of knowledge,
all knowledge is subservient to the knowledge of the Messenger.
Do you seek the fine details to correct the foundation,
and you have forgotten the foundation of the foundations?”
26. The Prophet was given full control over language. He knew how to begin a speech, how to conclude it, and how to put many ideas in few words. He was sent with general principles and the knowledge of the matters of this world as well as the next. Later it happened that whenever anyone came with an innovation, people took it and wrote volumes to respond to it, although such deeds contain few blessings. The Salaf, on the other hand, used to speak and write little, but what they said was very useful and full of blessings. It is not as the straying scholastic theologians say, “The method of those people was safer but ours is wiser and more erudite.” Or as those who have no ability to reflect in matters of fiqh “(the Salaf) did not formulate or define the principles, as they were busy with other matters. We devoted ourselves to these things so we are more knowledgeable than they.”
27. All those people are ignorant of the greatness of the Salaf and their profound knowledge, deep insight and unassuming style. By Allah, the later writers only distinguished themselves by writing on marginal issues, whereas the Salaf were concerned with the fundamentals. They laid down the basic rules, defined the principles and were interested in major issues and problems of real importance. The later writers were concerned about one thing while the Salaf were concerned with something completely different. And Allah has decreed for everything its measure.
28. Many scholars have commented on this creed, but I have noticed that these commentators have inclined to the way of the unacceptable kalam, based their arguments upon them and spoken according to their terms.
29. The Salaf did not disapprove of new terms like substance, body, accident, and so on, just because they were new terms trying to convey true ideas. In fact, they never objected to the terms which the new sciences employed. Nor did they oppose any effort to establish the truth and refute the objections which heretics and non-Muslims raised. They disapproved only of those new terms which conveyed wrong ideas opposed to the Qur’an and the Sunnah. This is why the exponents of these (heretical) ideas lack the conviction which an ordinary Muslim has, not to speak of the scholars among the Elders.
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The commentator is saying that the Salaf did not detest ‘ilm al-kalam because it used words and terms that were unheard of before. Rather, their censure of kalam was because such words (substances, accidents and bodies) were ambiguous and were used to make the truth seem falsehood and vice versa. Otherwise, the Salaf themselves used many words that were not mentioned in the revealed texts, in order to affirm the truth. For instance, the Salaf affirmed that Allah is above His throne – bi dhatihi – by himself, even though there is no mention of it in the texts. The same could be said about ‘not created’, with respect to the Quran; ‘separate from His creation’ with respect to Allah’s existence, and so on.
30. Since their premises contained both truth and untruth, differences arose and controversies multiplied, and ideas conflicting with the authentic Shari’ah and clear reason were put forward. This is not the place to enter into such a discussion; we will discuss the matter further while commenting on the author’s words, “Whoever seeks knowledge that has been withheld from him...”
31. I desired to comment on it following the way of the Salaf. I have benefited from their writings and built upon their ideas. I hope to be counted among their followers and to be resurrected with them in the Hereafter, “...with those upon whom is the grace of Allah: the prophets, the sincere lovers of truth, the witnesses thereto, and the righteous — what a beautiful fellowship!” [4:49]
32. Since people do not like lengthy expositions, I have tried to be brief in my comments. “My success in the task can only come from Allah; in Him I trust and unto Him I turn” [11:88], and, “He is sufficient for us; and what a good disposer of affairs.” [3: 173]
May Allah reward the commentator for producing an excellent discourse on Sunni theology.
During the course of this commentary, the commentator often delves into ‘ilm al-kalam. Many of those today who have commented on this commentary, often choose to leave out the aspects of ‘ilm al-kalam, claiming that they purged the commentary from the censured ‘ilm al-kalam! However, in reality many of them haven’t grasped ‘ilm al-kalam themselves, which is why they choose to leave the kalam discourse out.
It is therefore, worth mentioning that the commentator only delves into ‘ilm al-kalam in order to refute the rational arguments of the mutakallimun, and not to base Islamic theology on ‘ilm al-kalam. And why would the commentator base his beliefs on ‘ilm al-kalam when he himself has written quite well criticizing it?
Similarly, not everyone who delves into ‘ilm al-kalam is an advocate thereof.
Welcome to our lessons on Sharh al-‘Aqida al-Tahawiyya by the great Hanafi scholar, Ibn Abil-‘Izz al-Hanafi, which comes as a Sunni commentary to the creed written by one of the Sunni scholars of Islam, al-Imam al-Tahawi – may Allah be merciful with him.
Since the commentary by Ibn Abil-‘Izz is sufficient to explain the Sunni creed, there is no need for anyone to further comment on the commentary itself. However, since many parts of the commentary may require further elaboration, I would try my best to comment on the commentary wherever appropriate.
COMMENTATOR’S PREFACE
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In the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful.
1. Praise is for Allah. We praise Him, seek His help, ask for His forgiveness; and we seek refuge in Allah from the evil in our souls from the wrong of our deeds. Whomever Allah guides, there is no one to misguide him; and whomever He leaves astray, there is none to guide him. I bear witness that there is no god except Allah, One, with no partner. I also bear witness that our revered Muhammad is His servant and messenger. May Allah bless him and his family, his companions and his followers, and shower on them favors.
2. The science of the principles of faith [I](usul ad-din) is the noblest of all the sciences, for the dignity of a science depends upon the dignity of the subject it studies. It is the fiqh al-akbar (higher knowledge) in contrast to fiqh al-furu, (knowledge of practical rules). For this reason, lmam Abu Hanifah named what he stated and gathered together in writing concerning the foundations of the religion fiqh al-akbar. A person’s need for this understanding is greater than any other need. It is a greater necessity than any other necessity, for there is no life, pleasure or tranquility for hearts except by knowing their Lord, object of adoration and Creator, by names, attributes and acts. In knowing that, he will love Him above everything and he will seek all that brings him close to Him and he will not pursue anything else of His creation.
The Commentator explains why the study of Islamic theology is the most noble of all sciences. He argues that the nobility of any knowledge is determined by its subject. For instance, Medicine is a noble science since it deals with human health and improvement thereof; hence, the nobility of medicine depends on the nobility of human health. Similarly, the science that deals with knowing Allah is the most noble of all sciences because there is nothing nobler than Allah.
In this regard, the commentator suggests that al-Imam Abu Hanfia wrote his work on creed and called it: al-Fiqh al-Akbar – meaning, the greater fiqh, as opposed to the lesser fiqh of salah, zakah, sawm and Hajj, etc. This is because al-fiqh al-akbar, that is our knowledge of Allah, is the foundation of the rest of the fiqh.
With respect to attribution of the work al-fiqh al-akbar to Imam Abu Hanifa, then that is incorrect. This is because it is a reflection of Kullabite ideology which was not formulated by the time of Imam Abu Hanifa. Nevertheless, many of the scholars still refer to this book, because even if the book does not wholly represented Imam Abu Hanifa’s beliefs, it does so partially.
3. It is impossible for unaided human reason to know all of the above and to realize it in detail. Therefore, the mercy of the Merciful led Him to send messengers to teach about Him and to call people to belief in Him. Whoever responded (positively) to them received good tidings from the prophets, and whoever opposed them received warnings from them. The key and essence of their missions to impart knowledge of the Adored, may He be glorified, through His names, attributes and actions. From beginning to end, the goal of their prophecies was built upon this knowledge.
4. This is thus followed by two important principles. First is the knowledge of the way to Allah and that way is His Shariah, which consists of His commands and prohibitions. Second is the knowledge of the happiness and bounties which are reserved for those who come to Allah by following the proper way.
5. Those who know Allah best are the best followers of the path to and the most knowledgeable of the life that awaits them when they come to Him. For this reason, Allah called what He revealed to His messengers ruh, or ‘spirit’, because the real life is dependent on it. He also called it light (nur) because guidance is dependent upon it. Allah, the Most High, says, “By His command He sends the spirit to any of His servants He pleases” [40: 15], and “Thus We have sent, by Our command, the spirit to you. You knew not before what was Revelation and what was Faith. But We have made it (the Qur’an) a light, wherewith We guide such of Our servants as We will. And you guide (men) to the Straight Path, the Way of Allah to Whom belongs whatever is in the heavens and whatever is on earth. Behold all affairs tend towards Allah” [42:52-53]. There is no life except through what the Messenger brought and there is no light except what is lit by it. It is the cure and healing, as Allah says, “Say: it is a guide and healing for the Believers” [41:44]. Although it is a cure and healing for anyone, since only the Believers benefit from it, they are specifically mentioned.
6. Allah sent His messengers with guidance and the true religion. Aside from what they brought, there is no true guidance. There is no doubt that it is obligatory upon every individual to believe in what the Messenger brought in general. There is also no doubt that to know the detailed matters of what the Messenger brought is an obligation upon the community as a whole (Fard kifayah). This detailed knowledge make up part of the knowledge which is required for preaching the revelation, for elaborating on the Qur’an, for teaching the Book and the Sunnah, for guarding the message against corruption, for disseminating its ideas, for enjoining good and forbidding evil, for calling men to the Way of the Lord with wisdom, effective persuasion and cogent argument, and for many other things which Allah has made incumbent upon the Believers. Therefore, it is their collective responsibility (to know and understand what the Prophet brought in detail).
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The detailed knowledge referred to by the commentator is all that which the layman is not obliged to learn. But such knowledge must be preserved by a few, such that as and when a layman is in need of that knowledge, the scholars can readily make that knowledge available to him. Therefore, it is a communal obligation – or fard kifaya – to preserve such knowledge. Meaning, in every community there must be a qualified Islamic scholar to whom the people can refer to with their religious queries.
7. As for individuals themselves, the obligation upon them varies according to their talents, abilities, knowledge and what they have been specifically commanded to do. The responsibility of one who is incapable of understanding a particular idea or enters into its depths is not the same as the responsibility of one who has such a capability. The responsibility of one who hears a particular text or who can explain a text and work out its implications is not the same as the responsibility of one who has not heard such a text or who does not understand it. Obviously, the responsibilities of a jurist, scholar of [I]hadith, or ruler differ from the responsibilities of those who do not hold such positions.
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This is a very important statement, similar (if not exact) to what Ibn Taymiyya says in dar’ al-ta’arudh. This statement highlights certain things to us all:
a) We have different abilities and skills, and we cannot expect all of us to master a particular science.
b) Our individual and social responsibilities must be in accordance with the skills we posses.
For instance, if a person is gifted by Allah in terms of religious knowledge and understanding, it would be a waste of his skills to direct him to study another science. Similarly, if one was gifted in computer science, it wouldn’t be wise for him to study Islamic sciences in depth, if he lacks the skills.
Therefore, the one who is gifted, his responsibilities are not the same at all as the one not that gifted.
Therefore, as a side-point, it is of utmost importance for any leadership to be aware of the potential and skills of the followers, and to only task them with work they enjoy and are good at!
8. One must realize that the majority of those who strayed concerning this topic or those who failed to recognize the truth have done so because they have not paid due attention to following what the Messenger brought, or they did not ponder it or appreciate its arguments that lead to this knowledge. Once they turned away from the Book of Allah, they went astray. As Allah states, “But whenever My guidance comes to you, whoever follows My guidance will not go astray or be distressed. As for him who turns his face away from My message, his living will become straitened, and on the Day of Resurrection, We will raise him sightless. He will say, ‘My Lord! Why have You raised me blind when I had been able to see?’ He will reply, So will it be. My signs and messages came to you, but you forgot them all. So will you be forgotten this day.” [20:123- 126]
9. Ibn ‘Abbas said, “Allah has guaranteed that whoever reads the Qur’an and acts upon it will never go astray in this life, nor will he suffer misery in the next,” and then he recited the above verses. At-Tirmidhi and other compilers of [I]hadith reported on the authority of ‘Ali that the Prophet (peace be on him) said, “There will be trials and tribulations.” The people asked, “How will we save ourselves?” He replied, “Adhere to the Book of Allah, which speaks of those who have gone before, as well as of those who will come later, and tells the truth in clear and definite terms in matters concerning which you disagree. Whoever neglects it out of conceit will be humiliated by Allah. Whoever looks for guidance elsewhere will be misled by Allah. It is the cord of Allah, which will never break, the Wise Message and the Right Path, which will never be distorted by evil minds or corrupted by wicked tongues. Its mysteries will never end, nor will scholars ever be satisfied by what they know of it. Whoever speaks according to it has spoken the truth; whoever acts upon it will be rewarded; whoever rules according to it does justice; and whoever calls to it invites to the Straight Path.” There are many more verses and ahadith of similar meaning.
10. Allah does not accept any way of life from the first or last of mankind unless it is in accordance with the way of life prescribed through the tongues of His messengers. He has declared that He rejects all that people ascribe to Him except what the prophets stated about Him. He states, “Glory be to your Lord, the Lord of Honor and Power. He is free from what they ascribe to Him. And peace be on the messengers. And praise be to Allah, the Lord and Cherisher of the Worlds” [37:180-182]. He has thus exalted Himself above the unbecoming attributes the unbelievers ascribed to Him. Then He blessed the prophets because they did not ascribe any shortcoming or defect to Him. Then He praised Himself because of His unique attributes that entitle Him to complete praise.
11. The best people of all generations, the Companions of the Prophet (peace be on him) and their righteous Successors, followed the way which the Prophet (peace be on him) had shown. The Companions taught it to the Successors and the Successors followed the Companions. They thus walked on the path the Prophet (peace be on him) blazed. As Allah says in His Noble Book, “Say: This is my way; I do call to God with full knowledge, I and those who follow me” [12:108]. (By the Arabic structure of the verse.) “those who follow me” could relate back to “I do call to God,” [meaning, I call to God as do those who follow me,’) which is evidence that those who follow him are the real callers to the way of Allah. Or, it could be referring to “with full knowledge,” thus stating clearly that those who follow him are those with full knowledge of what he brought as opposed to others (who do not have such knowledge). Both meanings are sound.
12. The Prophet (peace be on him) delivered the message clearly and explained it for those who seek the truth. The best generations followed his path and way. Then came generations afterwards who followed their lusts and divided into sects. But then Allah raised for this nation people who protected and restated the foundations and principles of its religion, as the Prophet (peace be on him) stated, “There will always be a group of my nation that will defend the truth. Those who forsake them will not harm them.”
13. One of the Muslim scholars who fulfilled that obligation was Imam Abu Ja’far Ahmad lbn Muhammad lbn Salamah Al-Azdi At-Tahawi, may Allah immerse him in His mercy. He lived during the third century after the Hijrah; he was born in 239 A.H. and died in 321 A.H. He reported what the Salaf followed. He quoted from lmam Abu Hanifah An-Nu’man Ibn Thabit Al-Kufi and his two colleagues, Abu Yusuf Ya’qub lbn Ibrahim Al-Himyari Al-Ansari and Muhammad Ibn Hassan Ash-Shaybani, the principles of faith they believed in to please their Lord. May Allah bless them.
Al-Imam al-Tahawi was a Shafi’i scholar to converted to Hanafism. His work on creed, known as al-‘aqida al-tahawiyya, thereafter, become one of the few works recognized and acknowledged by the four Sunni schools. Al-Tahawi, amongst the Hanafis, represents the traditional theological school, that adheres to the legal texts without delving into ‘ilm al-kalam. The Hanafi school also had two other prominent strands; the rationalist strand represented by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi, and the ultra-rationalist strand represented by Bishr al-Marrisi, one of the leading figures of the Mu’tazili movement. Both of the latter strands were advocates of ‘ilm al-kalam, or speculative theology, which was condemned by the consensus of the Salaf.
14. As time passed on, heresies and deviations - what their proponents (deceivingly) called Ta’wil (“correct interpretation”) in order for it to be accepted - began to appear. Very few could distinguish between correct interpretation and wrong, deviant interpretations. Ta’wil as they understood it, was to discard the plain meaning of the text and understand it in a sense different from what its words implied, even though there was nothing in the words to suggest that meaning. This was a source of evil. Since they called it Ta’wil, and as people began using the term in that sense, it became difficult to distinguish correct interpretation from misinterpretation.
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The crime of Ta’wil has been one of the greatest crimes against the Sharia throughout Islamic history. Basically, it has been a very convenient tool in the hands of anyone who finds contradiction between Islam and his ideals, and therefore, tries to ‘shape up’ Islamic to suit his needs.
The Mu’tazilas found many of the legal texts rationally absurd, such as the sirat, and the mizan, etc, so they distorted the meanings of the texts under the guise of ta’wil.
The Ash’aris did the same with those of the attributes that contradicted their kalami principles.
The Batini esoterics had their own version of Islam, which had no hell, nor heaven, nor prohibitions, nor sharia, and ta’wil was applied, virtually, in every aspect of Sharia.
The ‘Muslim’ secularists today have a similar agenda, where they would like to shred Islam of many of its laws. Hence, the call for reinterpretation of legal texts within the 21<sup>st</sup> century context, thereby seeking new revolutionary interpretation of the Quran under the guise of ta’wil. Those of the so-called ‘fundamentalists’ disagree are conveniently labeled as backward literalists, who believe in, and implement the literal implementation of the ‘Koran’.
15. After that began, the Believers came to be in need of clear expositions and refutations of the misconceptions presented. This led to a lot of discussion and discord. The cause for that was the people’s inclining to the misconceptions and doubts the heretics had raised and their entering into blameworthy philosophical discussions that the Elders had discouraged. The Elders prohibited studying, preoccupation with, or leaning towards such philosophy or scholasticism. This was in compliance with their Lord’s command, Who said, “When you see men engaged in vain discourse about Our words, turn away from them unless they turn to a different topic.” [6:68] The meaning of this verse clearly applies to them.
16. Misinterpretation of the text and deviation from the truth are of varying degrees: some are infidelity [I](kufr), some are intransigence (fisq), some are sin (ma’siyyah) and some are simply mistakes (khata’).
So not all types of ta’wil are of the same degree. The ta’wil of the batiniyya is kufr, whereas the ta’wil of the Ash’aris, mostly is misguidance not reaching the level of kufr. Yet, there are others who may be guilty of ta’wil and fall only into an error, not necessitating misguidance or kufr.
17. It is necessary to follow the messengers strictly and adhere to what Allah revealed to them. Prophecy ended with Muhammad (peace be on him). He was made the final prophet; his Book was made the judge over all the books revealed before; he was given the Book and the Sunnah; and his message was for all responsible creatures — both men and jinns — for all times, until the Day of Resurrection. Through him, Allah has established the truth, explained everything people need, and completed his religion for him and his nation. He has declared that obedience to the Prophet is obedience to Allah and disobedience to the Prophet is disobedience to Allah. Furthermore, He swore by Himself that people will not be true Believers unless they submit to the Prophet’s verdict on differences that may arise between them. He also stated that only hypocrites would ignore the Prophet and take their disputes to others for judgment. When they are called to Allah and the Messenger (to judge between them) - that is, to the Book of Allah and the Sunnah of His Messenger — they oppose it completely and claim that they simply want what is best and blessed.
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18. And many of the dialecticians, philosophers and others say the same, “We want to know things as they really are. And we want to reconcile the rational evidence — what they call rational evidence which is actually ignorant evidence — and the reported statements from the Messenger.” Or, “We want to bring the Shari’ah and philosophy into agreement.”
19. Or as many of the heretics among the ascetics and Sufis say, “We want the best life by bringing together the Shariah and the falseness that they call reality.” This is ignorance and misguidance. Similarly, many who have by any means grabbed power claim, “We want to improve the conditions of the people and reconcile their principles of government and the Shari’ah,” and so on.
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This is another important point to take note of. Many of those who attribute themselves to Islam, while their hearts and minds are captivated by another ideology, find themselves at pains to reconcile between their faith and reason. The so-called Muslim philosophers who were mesmerized by Greek philosophy, and often found the fundamental Islamic concept of God and the creation at odds with Aristotle’s philosophy and logic. And hence, they remained faithful to philosophy, but distorted Islam, while claiming that they only seek to reconcile between the two ideas and demonstrate that there is no conflict between the two.
The Sufis, who were mesmerized by their idea of spiritual practices, when they found it contradicting with the Sharia, they began to look for Shara’i justification for their non-Shara’i practices, all the while claiming that there is no contradiction between the Islamic Sharia and the Sufi Haqiqa.
Similarly, whenever you have a new ideology which some so-called Muslims have wholeheartedly embraced, and which happens to be at odds with Islam, we would find those Muslims at pains with reconciling between the two, and justifying that there is no contradiction between the two blatantly contradictory ideas.
For instance, in Egypt there was an attempt to demonstrate how French laws were not contradictory to Islamic laws, and that is by searching through all the odd opinions found in the four, or more schools of fiqh, looking for those opinions that would, in one way or another, agree with French Law.
Similar is the case with the Muslims living in some Western countries where they are told to choose between their national identity and Islam. And unfortunately, the Muslim response usually happens to be exactly the same; that they try their best to reconcile between their national and global religious identity.
The proper Muslim response should be: Islam is above all ideologies and schisms, such that it does not need to be reconciled with anything else. If anything, it is Islam whose role is to bring everything else in line with it.
20. Whoever intends to establish anything in religion besides what the Prophet (peace be upon him) taught, and believes that it is good and that combines what the Prophet had with what contradicts it will only get the latter, for what the Prophet brought is sufficient and perfect. Every truth is part of it. Shortcomings and errors only come from the many Muslims themselves who actually do not know what the Prophet stated in matters related to theology, in matters related to different aspects of worship or in matters related to governmental affairs. Or they ascribe to the Shariah of the Messenger, because of their suppositions and customs, things that are not part of it and they discard many things which are part of that Shari’ah. As a result of the ignorance and error of some, and the intransigence and hypocrisy of others, the knowledge of the Prophet’s teachings is on the decline and hypocrisy is on the rise.
21. It is necessary that we acquaint ourselves completely with what the Messenger (peace be on him) taught, reflect deeply on it and apply it to all that we know and believe. We must apply it both exoterically and esoterically. In that way, we will do justice to the Book and will not discard anything of it.
22. If someone is not able to know or act upon all of that knowledge, he should not oppose what he cannot comprehend of what the Prophet (peace be upon him) brought. It is sufficient for him that he is not to be blamed for his inability. But he should be happy that someone else is able to do what he cannot. It should please him. He should wish that he could do the same. He should not believe in some parts of the revelation and not in others, but he must believe in all of the Book. He must also refrain from putting into it what does not belong to it, even if it be something passed on from earlier people or opinion, and refrain from following anything, in belief or actions, that is not from Allah. As Allah, the Most High, has said, “Do not confuse the truth with falsehood, nor hide the truth knowingly.” [2:42]
23. This was the way of the earliest generation of Salaf, those who followed them in good, the leaders of the religion [I](a’immat ad-din) whom the entire Muslim nation accepts, and those who follow them until the Day of Resurrection. Abu Yusuf, may Allah have mercy on him, said to Bishr Al-Marrisi, “Knowledge of kalam is ignorance, and ignorance of kalam is knowledge. Whoever masters kalam should be called or accused of being a heretic-hypocrite (zindiq).” By “ignorance of kalam” he meant the belief that it is not true, that it by itself is beneficial knowledge, or he meant by that refraining from kalam and avoiding studying it. That it will protect a person’s knowledge and intellect and is part of knowledge itself. Allah knows best. He also said, “Whoever seeks knowledge through kalam becomes a heretic-hypocrite. Whoever seeks wealth by alchemy will become penniless. Whoever runs after lone (gharib) hadith falls into falsehood.”
Here the commentator is hinting that those he would endeavor to refute in this commentary are the partisans of speculative theology – or ‘ilm al-kalam, be they the Mu’tazila, the Ash’aris or the Maturidis.
24. Imam Ash-Shafi’i (may Allah have mercy on him) said. “My judgment concerning the people engaged in kalam is that they should be flogged with palm branches and shoes and taken round and displayed before the tribes and clans.” And it should be said, “This is the punishment for those who ignore the Qur’an and Sunnah and instead engage in kalam.” He also stated, in lines of poetry,
“Every knowledge except the Qur’an is diversion
except (also) hadith and Fiqh in religion.
Knowledge is where one says: Haddathana
beyond that is only what has been whispered by Satan.”
Our colleagues [from the Hanafi school] mentioned in their legal rulings: ‘If one were to bequeath his wealth to the ‘ulama of his township,’ the speculative theologians (mutakallimun) are not to be included in the ranks of the ‘ulama. If a man were to bequeath some of his books concerning knowledge as an endowment (waqf), the Salaf declared that the books on speculative theology be sold (instead of treating them as waqf). That has been stated in Al-Fatawa adh-Dhahiriyyah.
25. How can one wish to attain the knowledge of the foundations or principle aspects without following what the Messenger brought? What an excellent statement was made by the one who said in poetry,
“You who go out in search of knowledge,
all knowledge is subservient to the knowledge of the Messenger.
Do you seek the fine details to correct the foundation,
and you have forgotten the foundation of the foundations?”
26. The Prophet was given full control over language. He knew how to begin a speech, how to conclude it, and how to put many ideas in few words. He was sent with general principles and the knowledge of the matters of this world as well as the next. Later it happened that whenever anyone came with an innovation, people took it and wrote volumes to respond to it, although such deeds contain few blessings. The Salaf, on the other hand, used to speak and write little, but what they said was very useful and full of blessings. It is not as the straying scholastic theologians say, “The method of those people was safer but ours is wiser and more erudite.” Or as those who have no ability to reflect in matters of fiqh “(the Salaf) did not formulate or define the principles, as they were busy with other matters. We devoted ourselves to these things so we are more knowledgeable than they.”
27. All those people are ignorant of the greatness of the Salaf and their profound knowledge, deep insight and unassuming style. By Allah, the later writers only distinguished themselves by writing on marginal issues, whereas the Salaf were concerned with the fundamentals. They laid down the basic rules, defined the principles and were interested in major issues and problems of real importance. The later writers were concerned about one thing while the Salaf were concerned with something completely different. And Allah has decreed for everything its measure.
28. Many scholars have commented on this creed, but I have noticed that these commentators have inclined to the way of the unacceptable kalam, based their arguments upon them and spoken according to their terms.
29. The Salaf did not disapprove of new terms like substance, body, accident, and so on, just because they were new terms trying to convey true ideas. In fact, they never objected to the terms which the new sciences employed. Nor did they oppose any effort to establish the truth and refute the objections which heretics and non-Muslims raised. They disapproved only of those new terms which conveyed wrong ideas opposed to the Qur’an and the Sunnah. This is why the exponents of these (heretical) ideas lack the conviction which an ordinary Muslim has, not to speak of the scholars among the Elders.
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The commentator is saying that the Salaf did not detest ‘ilm al-kalam because it used words and terms that were unheard of before. Rather, their censure of kalam was because such words (substances, accidents and bodies) were ambiguous and were used to make the truth seem falsehood and vice versa. Otherwise, the Salaf themselves used many words that were not mentioned in the revealed texts, in order to affirm the truth. For instance, the Salaf affirmed that Allah is above His throne – bi dhatihi – by himself, even though there is no mention of it in the texts. The same could be said about ‘not created’, with respect to the Quran; ‘separate from His creation’ with respect to Allah’s existence, and so on.
30. Since their premises contained both truth and untruth, differences arose and controversies multiplied, and ideas conflicting with the authentic Shari’ah and clear reason were put forward. This is not the place to enter into such a discussion; we will discuss the matter further while commenting on the author’s words, “Whoever seeks knowledge that has been withheld from him...”
31. I desired to comment on it following the way of the Salaf. I have benefited from their writings and built upon their ideas. I hope to be counted among their followers and to be resurrected with them in the Hereafter, “...with those upon whom is the grace of Allah: the prophets, the sincere lovers of truth, the witnesses thereto, and the righteous — what a beautiful fellowship!” [4:49]
32. Since people do not like lengthy expositions, I have tried to be brief in my comments. “My success in the task can only come from Allah; in Him I trust and unto Him I turn” [11:88], and, “He is sufficient for us; and what a good disposer of affairs.” [3: 173]
May Allah reward the commentator for producing an excellent discourse on Sunni theology.
During the course of this commentary, the commentator often delves into ‘ilm al-kalam. Many of those today who have commented on this commentary, often choose to leave out the aspects of ‘ilm al-kalam, claiming that they purged the commentary from the censured ‘ilm al-kalam! However, in reality many of them haven’t grasped ‘ilm al-kalam themselves, which is why they choose to leave the kalam discourse out.
It is therefore, worth mentioning that the commentator only delves into ‘ilm al-kalam in order to refute the rational arguments of the mutakallimun, and not to base Islamic theology on ‘ilm al-kalam. And why would the commentator base his beliefs on ‘ilm al-kalam when he himself has written quite well criticizing it?
Similarly, not everyone who delves into ‘ilm al-kalam is an advocate thereof.